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+.\" Copyright (c) 1983, 1991, 1993
+.\"	The Regents of the University of California.  All rights reserved.
+.\"
+.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+.\" are met:
+.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+.\"    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+.\" 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
+.\"    must display the following acknowledgement:
+.\"	This product includes software developed by the University of
+.\"	California, Berkeley and its contributors.
+.\" 4. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
+.\"    may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+.\"    without specific prior written permission.
+.\"
+.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+.\" ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+.\" FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+.\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+.\" OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+.\" HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+.\" LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+.\" OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+.\" SUCH DAMAGE.
+.\"
+.\"     @(#)fs.5	8.2 (Berkeley) 4/19/94
+.\"
+.Dd April 19, 1994
+.Dt FS 5
+.Os BSD 4.2
+.Sh NAME
+.Nm fs ,
+.Nm inode
+.Nd format of file system volume
+.Sh SYNOPSIS
+.Fd #include <sys/types.h>
+.Fd #include <ufs/fs.h>
+.Fd #include <ufs/inode.h>
+.Sh DESCRIPTION
+The files
+.Aq Pa fs.h
+and
+.Aq Pa inode.h
+declare several structures, defined variables and macros
+which are used to create and manage the underlying format of
+file system objects on random access devices (disks).
+.Pp
+The block size and number of blocks which
+comprise a file system are parameters of the file system.
+Sectors beginning at
+.Dv BBLOCK
+and continuing for
+.Dv BBSIZE
+are used
+for a disklabel and for some hardware primary
+and secondary bootstrapping programs.
+.Pp
+The actual file system begins at sector
+.Dv SBLOCK
+with the
+.Em super-block
+that is of size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+The following structure described the super-block and is
+from the file
+.Aq Pa ufs/fs.h :
+.Bd -literal
+#define	FS_MAGIC 0x011954
+struct fs {
+	struct	fs *fs_link;	/* linked list of file systems */
+	struct	fs *fs_rlink;	/*     used for incore super blocks */
+	daddr_t	fs_sblkno;	/* addr of super-block in filesys */
+	daddr_t	fs_cblkno;	/* offset of cyl-block in filesys */
+	daddr_t	fs_iblkno;	/* offset of inode-blocks in filesys */
+	daddr_t	fs_dblkno;	/* offset of first data after cg */
+	long	fs_cgoffset;	/* cylinder group offset in cylinder */
+	long	fs_cgmask;	/* used to calc mod fs_ntrak */
+	time_t 	fs_time;    	/* last time written */
+	long	fs_size;	/* number of blocks in fs */
+	long	fs_dsize;	/* number of data blocks in fs */
+	long	fs_ncg;	/* number of cylinder groups */
+	long	fs_bsize;	/* size of basic blocks in fs */
+	long	fs_fsize;	/* size of frag blocks in fs */
+	long	fs_frag;	/* number of frags in a block in fs */
+/* these are configuration parameters */
+	long	fs_minfree;	/* minimum percentage of free blocks */
+	long	fs_rotdelay;	/* num of ms for optimal next block */
+	long	fs_rps;	/* disk revolutions per second */
+/* these fields can be computed from the others */
+	long	fs_bmask;	/* ``blkoff'' calc of blk offsets */
+	long	fs_fmask;	/* ``fragoff'' calc of frag offsets */
+	long	fs_bshift;	/* ``lblkno'' calc of logical blkno */
+	long	fs_fshift;	/* ``numfrags'' calc number of frags */
+/* these are configuration parameters */
+	long	fs_maxcontig;	/* max number of contiguous blks */
+	long	fs_maxbpg;	/* max number of blks per cyl group */
+/* these fields can be computed from the others */
+	long	fs_fragshift;	/* block to frag shift */
+	long	fs_fsbtodb;	/* fsbtodb and dbtofsb shift constant */
+	long	fs_sbsize;	/* actual size of super block */
+	long	fs_csmask;	/* csum block offset */
+	long	fs_csshift;	/* csum block number */
+	long	fs_nindir;	/* value of NINDIR */
+	long	fs_inopb;	/* value of INOPB */
+	long	fs_nspf;	/* value of NSPF */
+/* yet another configuration parameter */
+	long	fs_optim;	/* optimization preference, see below */
+/* these fields are derived from the hardware */
+	long	fs_npsect;	/* # sectors/track including spares */
+	long	fs_interleave;	/* hardware sector interleave */
+	long	fs_trackskew;	/* sector 0 skew, per track */
+	long	fs_headswitch;	/* head switch time, usec */
+	long	fs_trkseek;	/* track-to-track seek, usec */
+/* sizes determined by number of cylinder groups and their sizes */
+	daddr_t fs_csaddr;	/* blk addr of cyl grp summary area */
+	long	fs_cssize;	/* size of cyl grp summary area */
+	long	fs_cgsize;	/* cylinder group size */
+/* these fields are derived from the hardware */
+	long	fs_ntrak;	/* tracks per cylinder */
+	long	fs_nsect;	/* sectors per track */
+	long  	fs_spc;   	/* sectors per cylinder */
+/* this comes from the disk driver partitioning */
+	long	fs_ncyl;   	/* cylinders in file system */
+/* these fields can be computed from the others */
+	long	fs_cpg;	/* cylinders per group */
+	long	fs_ipg;	/* inodes per group */
+	long	fs_fpg;	/* blocks per group * fs_frag */
+/* this data must be re-computed after crashes */
+	struct	csum fs_cstotal;	/* cylinder summary information */
+/* these fields are cleared at mount time */
+	char   	fs_fmod;    	/* super block modified flag */
+	char   	fs_clean;    	/* file system is clean flag */
+	char   	fs_ronly;   	/* mounted read-only flag */
+	char   	fs_flags;   	/* currently unused flag */
+	char	fs_fsmnt[MAXMNTLEN];	/* name mounted on */
+/* these fields retain the current block allocation info */
+	long	fs_cgrotor;	/* last cg searched */
+	struct	csum *fs_csp[MAXCSBUFS]; /* list of fs_cs info buffers */
+	long	fs_cpc;	/* cyl per cycle in postbl */
+	short	fs_opostbl[16][8];	/* old rotation block list head */
+	long	fs_sparecon[56];	/* reserved for future constants */
+	quad	fs_qbmask;	/* ~fs_bmask - for use with quad size */
+	quad	fs_qfmask;	/* ~fs_fmask - for use with quad size */
+	long	fs_postblformat; /* format of positional layout tables */
+	long	fs_nrpos;	/* number of rotational positions */
+	long	fs_postbloff;	/* (short) rotation block list head */
+	long	fs_rotbloff;	/* (u_char) blocks for each rotation */
+	long	fs_magic;	/* magic number */
+	u_char	fs_space[1];	/* list of blocks for each rotation */
+/* actually longer */
+};
+.Ed
+.Pp
+Each disk drive contains some number of file systems.
+A file system consists of a number of cylinder groups.
+Each cylinder group has inodes and data.
+.Pp
+A file system is described by its super-block, which in turn
+describes the cylinder groups.  The super-block is critical
+data and is replicated in each cylinder group to protect against
+catastrophic loss.  This is done at file system creation
+time and the critical
+super-block data does not change, so the copies need not be
+referenced further unless disaster strikes.
+.Pp
+Addresses stored in inodes are capable of addressing fragments
+of `blocks'. File system blocks of at most size
+.Dv MAXBSIZE
+can 
+be optionally broken into 2, 4, or 8 pieces, each of which is
+addressable; these pieces may be
+.Dv DEV_BSIZE ,
+or some multiple of
+a
+.Dv DEV_BSIZE
+unit.
+.Pp
+Large files consist of exclusively large data blocks.  To avoid
+undue wasted disk space, the last data block of a small file is
+allocated as only as many fragments of a large block as are
+necessary.  The file system format retains only a single pointer
+to such a fragment, which is a piece of a single large block that
+has been divided.  The size of such a fragment is determinable from
+information in the inode, using the
+.Fn blksize fs ip lbn
+macro.
+.Pp
+The file system records space availability at the fragment level;
+to determine block availability, aligned fragments are examined.
+.Pp
+The root inode is the root of the file system.
+Inode 0 can't be used for normal purposes and
+historically bad blocks were linked to inode 1,
+thus the root inode is 2 (inode 1 is no longer used for
+this purpose, however numerous dump tapes make this
+assumption, so we are stuck with it).
+.Pp
+The
+.Fa fs_minfree
+element gives the minimum acceptable percentage of file system
+blocks that may be free. If the freelist drops below this level
+only the super-user may continue to allocate blocks.
+The
+.Fa fs_minfree
+element
+may be set to 0 if no reserve of free blocks is deemed necessary,
+however severe performance degradations will be observed if the
+file system is run at greater than 90% full; thus the default
+value of
+.Fa fs_minfree
+is 10%.
+.Pp
+Empirically the best trade-off between block fragmentation and
+overall disk utilization at a loading of 90% comes with a
+fragmentation of 8, thus the default fragment size is an eighth
+of the block size.
+.Pp
+The element
+.Fa fs_optim
+specifies whether the file system should try to minimize the time spent
+allocating blocks, or if it should attempt to minimize the space
+fragmentation on the disk.
+If the value of fs_minfree (see above) is less than 10%,
+then the file system defaults to optimizing for space to avoid
+running out of full sized blocks.
+If the value of minfree is greater than or equal to 10%,
+fragmentation is unlikely to be problematical, and
+the file system defaults to optimizing for time.
+.Pp
+.Em Cylinder group related limits :
+Each cylinder keeps track of the availability of blocks at different
+rotational positions, so that sequential blocks can be laid out
+with minimum rotational latency. With the default of 8 distinguished
+rotational positions, the resolution of the
+summary information is 2ms for a typical 3600 rpm drive.
+.Pp
+The element
+.Fa fs_rotdelay
+gives the minimum number of milliseconds to initiate
+another disk transfer on the same cylinder.
+It is used in determining the rotationally optimal
+layout for disk blocks within a file;
+the default value for
+.Fa fs_rotdelay
+is 2ms.
+.Pp
+Each file system has a statically allocated number of inodes.
+An inode is allocated for each
+.Dv NBPI
+bytes of disk space.
+The inode allocation strategy is extremely conservative.
+.Pp
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+is the smallest allowable block size.
+With a
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+of 4096
+it is possible to create files of size
+2^32 with only two levels of indirection.
+.Dv MINBSIZE
+must be big enough to hold a cylinder group block,
+thus changes to
+.Pq Fa struct cg
+must keep its size within
+.Dv MINBSIZE .
+Note that super-blocks are never more than size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+.Pp
+The path name on which the file system is mounted is maintained in
+.Fa fs_fsmnt .
+.Dv MAXMNTLEN
+defines the amount of space allocated in 
+the super-block for this name.
+The limit on the amount of summary information per file system
+is defined by
+.Dv MAXCSBUFS.
+For a 4096 byte block size, it is currently parameterized for a
+maximum of two million cylinders.
+.Pp
+Per cylinder group information is summarized in blocks allocated
+from the first cylinder group's data blocks. 
+These blocks are read in from
+.Fa fs_csaddr
+(size
+.Fa fs_cssize )
+in addition to the super-block.
+.Pp
+.Sy N.B.:
+.Xr sizeof Pq Fa struct csum
+must be a power of two in order for
+the
+.Fn fs_cs
+macro to work.
+.Pp
+The
+.Em "Super-block for a file system" :
+The size of the rotational layout tables
+is limited by the fact that the super-block is of size
+.Dv SBSIZE .
+The size of these tables is
+.Em inversely
+proportional to the block
+size of the file system. The size of the tables is
+increased when sector sizes are not powers of two,
+as this increases the number of cylinders
+included before the rotational pattern repeats
+.Pq Fa fs_cpc .
+The size of the rotational layout
+tables is derived from the number of bytes remaining in
+.Pq Fa struct fs .
+.Pp
+The number of blocks of data per cylinder group
+is limited because cylinder groups are at most one block.
+The inode and free block tables
+must fit into a single block after deducting space for
+the cylinder group structure
+.Pq Fa struct cg .
+.Pp
+The
+.Em Inode :
+The inode is the focus of all file activity in the
+.Tn UNIX
+file system.
+There is a unique inode allocated
+for each active file,
+each current directory, each mounted-on file,
+text file, and the root.
+An inode is `named' by its device/i-number pair.
+For further information, see the include file
+.Aq Pa sys/inode.h .
+.Sh HISTORY
+A super-block structure named filsys appeared in
+.At v6 .
+The file system described in this manual appeared
+in
+.Bx 4.2 .